Gendered Movements of the 1960's Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Gendered Movements of the 1960's - Essay Example is contrary to the past whereby most of them postponed marriages or relationships fearing extra responsibilities that remerged with being sexually active (Golson & Carlisle 170). Therefore, â€Å"The Pill’s† approval gave them liberty meant to plan how they needed their lives. This is especially to those who felt they could adequately handle both education as well as have families, because the latter would not weigh them down, hence prompting women compromise their dreams (Golson & Carlisle 170). Women’s realization that they were capable of reaching high heights in their lives prompted them to embark on guest to have equal elevation in the society, hence the â€Å"The Feminine Mystique† emergence (Kranson, Kohn & Diner 237). This was a publication chronicling numerous predicaments and injustices experienced by the female gender especially in the past that were still evident during the mid 20Th Period despite regimes claiming to believe in gender equality (Kranson, Kohn & Diner 237). Hence, questioning regimes whether motherhood and housework roles were still gratifying goals for the female gender owing to the then prevailing gender based segregation (Golson & Carlisle 159). In her book, Betty Friedan purpose entailed awakening of the female gender besides challenging the then and coming regimes about their perception concerning women’s position (Kranson, Kohn & Diner 230). The author contended what the women experienced during the mid 20Th period was in comparable and lacked name to expound it, hence her book acted as the â€Å"start of all† (Kranson, Kohn & Diner 237). The â€Å"Start of all† encompassed instilling the necessary momentum meant for the women to agitate for their privileges and equal their male counterparts. Therefore, this yielded to the enactment of numerous and key gender related acts, for instance, Civil Rights Act Title VII (Wolbrecht 152). The 1964 Civil Rights Act Title VII interpretation and amendment encompassed shunning segregation

Understanding Personality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Understanding Personality - Essay Example Personality can be described as the combination of attributes such as behavioral, temperamental, emotional and mental traits that make a person an unique individual. Ones personality typically derives from a combination of externalities such as environment, and educational level combined with internalaties such as gender, and ethnicity. Ones personality made up of their various characteristics operate to influence ones overall behavior which can be described as personality dynamics. An individuals personality dynamics are also molded by cognitive processes and culture. Ones cognitive processes describes how one interpret situations and their concluded answer to their interpretation of the thought process. This can vary by culture as culture is a sense of connection to a social group and since thought process is a variable, culture influences on ones thought process may create that variable as attitudes and feelings of a group may differ from culture to culture. For instance, the police beating Rodney King which incited a riot in Los Angeles, California in 1991. The police officers were acquitted of the usage of excessive force by a predominantly white jury that consisted of only 2 minorities which neither were from Black descent. The jury found that Rodney King resisted arrest inspite of the visual and physical evidence that insinuated excessive force. The outrage from the verdict infused folks from the Black culture as their cognitive perception of the interpretation of the visual evidence differed greatly from the jury. The cognitive process of the Blacks in that area had preconceived ideologies about police brutality that differed from other cultures which in turn incited a riot. The preconceived belief about police brutality had an influence on the personality dynamics of the Blacks that participated in the riots.

The General Adaptation Syndrome Psychology Essay

The General Adaptation Syndrome Psychology Essay Stress is inescapably present in the lives of every living organism. While some stress can be beneficial, too much of it is almost always disadvantageous. Frequently the word stress is used to describe the imposition of an undesirable psychological or physical state through uncontrollable or overwhelming circumstances. We tend to think of stress as a burden that we carry around with us. One individual might perceive that they are under an enormous amount of stress because of multiple impending deadlines, while another might feel stressed out because their house is not clean and unexpected guests are on their way. Despite the predominantly negative description above, stress itself is not necessarily bad. In fact, stress is an adaptive process without which our survival would be seriously compromised. Moderate stress can even have beneficial effects, such as improving cognitive function to facilitate meeting multiple deadlines and increasing energy supply to muscles to quickly clean th e entire house in a matter of minutes. However, too much or prolonged stress can result in a variety of detrimental effects on both physiological function and cognitive processes. Definition In order to properly understand the effects of stress on cognition, as measured by performance in a variety of mazes, we must first come to an understanding of what stress is. At its core, stress is can be defined as the response to a threat (or perceived threat) against homeostasis, the tendency of a system to maintain a stable internal environment. Living organisms, including humans and rodents, are open systems which work to maintain homeostasis despite being constantly bombarded by numerous external environmental insults. Homeostasis The concept of homeostasis was initially conceived by the French physiologist Claude Bernard in1854. He used the term milieu intà ©rierur to describe the ability of the internal environment (primarily the blood in Bernards time) of the body to compensate for and re-equilibrate in response to the external environment [1,2]. However, it was Walter Cannon who developed the concept of homeostasis. He proposed that the body maintained steady state conditions through multiple cooperative self-regulating mechanisms. One phenomenon observed by Cannon was that organisms respond to a threat by releasing epinephrine (aka adrenaline) from the adrenal medulla thereby increasing the bodys heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure while mobilizing glucose stores and inhibiting non-essential functions such as digestion and reproduction. This phenomenon is the prototypical sympathetic nervous system (a branch of the autonomic nervous system) response, for which Cannon coined the term fight-or-flig ht response [3]. Simply put, when confronted with a threat, an organism, through the narrowing of bodily functions and mobilization of available energy, is primed to respond actively, whether through fleeing or fighting. Thus, the primary contribution of Walter Cannon to the definition of stress was that in response to an environmental insult threatening the internal steady stated, the body initiates the sympathetic response to maintain homeostasis and ultimately increase survival. General Adaptation Syndrome The second major contributor to stress research was endocrinologist Hans Selye. Selye was working to discover a new hormone by injecting ovarian extracts in to rats and observing the physiological effects. He noted several changes after injection of this extract, including the 1) enlargement of the adrenal gland, 2) the atrophy of the thymus and lymph nodes and 3) the presence of gastric ulcers [4]. While he initially thought these effects were direct effects of a novel hormone, through additional control experiments he discovered that the injection of numerous agents, physical injury or even excessive exercise produced the same reliable effects [5]. Emphasizing the non-specificity of this response, Selye called these effects the General Adaptation Syndrome initially and later used the term stress to describe it. He further defined stressors as the factors or agents that triggered the stress response. In addition, Selye established the role of glucocorticoids, steroid hormones excret ed from the adrenal cortex, in the stress response. Furthermore, Selye described that prolonged exposure to stressors (and the stress response) can lead to illness or disease. Summary The combined work of Walter Cannon and Hans Selye formed the basis of stress research. Both agreed that when confronted with disruptive environmental factors, the body generated an adaptive response aimed at re-establishing homeostasis within the internal environment. Cannon focused on the sympathetic branch of this response, while Selye focused on the hormonal (i.e., endocrine) branch of this response. Modern thinking has modified the conceptualization of stress, as it turned out to be not quite as simple as originally thought. Importantly it is no longer thought that stress is non-specific as the magnitude and more subtle characteristics of the stress response are varied based on the type of stressor, the individuals perception of the stress and ability to cope. The following basic features of stress can be gleaned from this historical work: Stressors are any event, experience or environmental insult that threatens or is perceived to threaten homeostasis Stress is an adaptive response to re-establish and maintain homeostasis Stress is ultimately mediated by two branches: The sympathetic nervous system via release of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla The endocrine system via release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex These definitions and characteristics are more conducive to scientific study than the layman use of the term stress which does not distinguish between the trigger and the response, as described in the opening of this section. Thus, the definitions above will be utilized in the following sections. This chapter will further develop these basic concepts and present 1) an overview of the stress response, 2) descriptions of the different types of stressors, 3) the effects of both acute and chronic stress on learning and memory and 4) practical details on how to deal with the nuances of stress in behavioral testing. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ACUTE STRESS RESPONSE When a stressor is encountered, the brain triggers a physiological response, aimed at coping with the stressor and restoring homeostasis [6]. This response is governed by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Both of these systems are always actively engaged in maintaining homeostasis, but when posed with a disruption to an organisms internal environment, the HPA axis and SNS go into overdrive. When stressors are encountered several central nervous system (CNS) structures are activated to initiate the stress response, including the preganglionic sympathetic neurons of the spinal cord in addition to several brainstem and limbic forebrain structures [7]. These structures then recruit neural and neuroendocrine systems to initiate a stress response, culminating with the secretion of adrenal glucocorticoids (GCs) and epinephrine, the principle mediators of this adaptive response. The Sympathetic Nervous System Two primary pathways are activated by stressors within the SNS, the brain norepinephrine neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC) and the sympathetic adrenomedullary circuitry. Many, but not all stressors result in norepinephrine release from the LC, which ultimately contributes to the majority of circulating NE levels as well as numerous adaptive behaviors [8,9]. Activation of the sympathetic adrenomedullary circuitry via preganglionic neurons results in the release of the excitatory neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) onto postganglionic neurons and the adrenal medulla. Sympathetic postganglionic neurons primarily release of norepinephrine directly onto various target organs. On the other hand, activation of the adrenal medulla results in the synthesis and release of epinephrine into the circulation and indirectly onto target organs. Target organs activated by these catecholamines neurotransmitters correspond directly to the symptoms of the fight-or-flight response, including increased heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, pupil dilation, and inhibition of digestion, liver, kidney and gall bladder function. The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (Figure 1: HPA axis from Lupien 2009 Review) The present chapter will focus on the endocrine branch of the stress response. While the activation of the sympathetic nervous system is a key part of stress, many of the effects of stress on learning and memory have been shown to be dependent on GCs. The secretion of adrenal GC hormones is under the stimulatory drive of the medial parvocellular neurons in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. In response to stressors, brainstem and limbic forebrain regions activate these neurons to secrete corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) and vasopressin into the hypophysial circulation to stimulate the anterior pituitary to release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) into the peripheral circulation which ultimately results in the release of GCs from the adrenal gland [10]. GCs are carried to every organ via the circulation to allow for a coordinated adaptive response between the brain and bodily functions. GCs mobilize energy, suppress immune and inflammatory responses, inhibi t bone and muscle growth and reproductive function as well as increase attention and impact learning and memory processes [11]. GCs also regulate further CRH and ACTH release via negative feedback loops by binding receptors in the pituitary, PVN, hippocampus (HPC) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) to inhibit further GC release and to return the homeostatic balance of the HPA axis [10] (Fig. 1). While these are the primary targets of GCs, virtually every neuron in the brain has receptors for these hormones. Thus, GCs are an important enabler of normal brain function in addition to their role in HPA axis function. Corticosterone (CORT), the primary GC in the rat, is the ligand for the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), steroid hormone receptors that function as transcription factors and regulate neuronal gene transcription. GR and MR have different affinities for CORT in the brain. GRs are expressed ubiquitously in the brain, and are most concentrated in the CRH neurons of the PVN and ACTH releasing neurons in the anterior pituitary and also in the HPC [10]. The highest expression of MRs in the brain is in the HPC, though they are expressed in other forebrain regions [10]. MRs are saturated by modest levels of CORT, such as those generated during circadian oscillations, and thus mediate daily changes in HPA axis activity. On the other hand, GRs are saturated by more extreme levels of CORT, such as those seen following a stressful experience, and mediate negative feedback to restore homeostasis [12,10]. Time Course of the Acute Stress Response (Figure 2: rise and fall of CORT) The typical stress response begins within a very short period of time. The SNS response occurs more rapidly than the HPA axis response, due to direct neurotransmitter release on target tissues vs. indirect hormonal release into the circulation, respectively. Within seconds, the post-ganglionic neurons of the SNS release norepinephrine and the adrenal medulla releases epinephrine into circulation. Also within seconds, CRH is released from the PVN of the hypothalamus, followed quickly by the release of ACTH into peripheral circulation from the anterior pituitary [13]. Within 3-5 minutes, the adrenal cortex releases CORT into the circulation, by which time peak plasma ACTH levels are reached. While peak levels of GCs vary according to stressor type and duration, circulating CORT levels typically reach peak levels15-30 minutes after stressor initiation [14]. At this time ACTH levels have also returned to baseline [14]. However, the effects of GCs on target tissues do not occur until abou t an hour after stressor initiation [13]. After peak CORT levels are reached, negative feedback mechanisms shut down further CORT secretion so that circulating CORT levels recover to near baseline levels within 60-120 minutes after stressor initiation [15,14]. The time required to reach baseline levels also varies depending on stressor type and duration. Circulating levels of norepinephrine and epinephrine follow a similar trajectory, but with more rapid increases and decreases [16]. Biological Rhythms Plasma levels of CORT are not static, but follow a circadian rhythm that is closely aligned with the sleep-wake cycles. In both humans and rodents, plasma GCs rise as the sleep cycle (inactive phase) ends and peaks upon waking up. From this peak, GC levels fall during the active phase and eventually reach the circadian trough or nadir (the lowest point in the cycle) [17,18]. However, as nocturnal animals, the active phase for rodents is during the dark period and the inactive phase occurs during the light period. Thus, in laboratory animals, peak CORT levels are found just after the lights are turned off and nadir CORT levels are measured when the lights are turned on. In addition, within this circadian rhythm GCs are released in an ultradian (cycles repeated within the 24 hour period) pulsatile pattern which rises and falls according to the circadian rhythm [19]. Basal levels of CORT measured in rats can typically range from 0-200 ng/mL in adult male rats or 100-500 ng/mL in adult f emale rats [18]. In response to acute stressors, peak stress levels of CORT generally range from 200-600 ng/mL in adult male rats and 500-1000 ng/mL in adult female rats. Both basal and peak stress levels of CORT can vary depending on the sampling time within the circadian rhythm. Sex, Age and Strain Differences As noted above, sex differences in HPA axis activity and responses to acute stressors are well documented. Female rodents exhibit higher basal and stress induced levels of both ACTH and CORT [20,21]. Sex differences in CORT secretion are primarily mediated by estrogen, with higher levels of ACTH and CORT found during proestrus, when circulating levels of estrogen are high [20,18]. Much of the research on gonadal steroid regulation of the HPA axis suggests that estrogen has excitatory effects while androgens have inhibitory effects [22-26]. In addition, females have higher levels of corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG), which partially buffers the higher levels of CORT [27,24]. CBG binds circulating CORT and renders it biologically inactive [28,29]. However, CBG levels take several hours to increase after exposure to a stressor, resulting in higher levels of biologically active CORT in females in response to stressors [30]. Acute stress responses can also vary across the lifespan. After birth, from day 2 to 14, rats experience a stress hyporesponsive period (SHRP) wherein circulating basal CORT remain very low and neonatal pups fail to show an elevation in CORT in response to stress or ACTH administration[31-33]. Adolescence is the next developmental epoch, which includes three stages: pre-pubescence/early adolescence (21-34 days), mid-adolescence (34-46 days) and late adolescence (46-59 days) [34,35]. During early adolescence, rats exhibit an exaggerated HPA axis response to both acute and chronic stress compared to adults [36,37]. In addition, sex differences in HPA axis function mature over the adolescent period [38,39]. The acute stress response has also been investigated in aging animals, though a great deal of heterogeneity, particularly with respect to the aging model has been found [40]. However, the general consensus, based on earlier studies, is that aged animals exhibit elevated baseline (or basal) CORT and a prolonged stress-induced elevation in CORT release, possibly due to decreased GR-mediated negative feedback [41,42]. It should also be noted that aging is associated with increased variability in the acute stress response [40]. Sex differences in acute HPA axis responses are not frequently examined in aged rats. However, since estrogen decreases with age, and males demonstrate increased basal CORT, it would be expected that sex differences would become less robust [43,44] Robust strain differences in both basal and peak stress levels of CORT also exist. In general, the in bred Fischer 344 (F344) strain of rats secrete higher levels of both basal and stress induced CORT levels compared to both the inbred Lewis (LEW) strain and the outbred Sprague Dawley (SD) strain (Dhabar 1993). Interestingly, both F344 and SD rats show increased basal CORT levels at the end of the inactive period, while LEW rats did not show a robust circadian rhythm (Dhabar 1993). As mentioned above, strain differences can also interact with age differences to further complicate the picture of a normal HPA axis stress response across the lifespan. CHRONIC STRESS Exposure to chronic stress can result in long term elevations in GCs and has been shown to alter the structure and function of the brain regions involved in regulating the HPA axis as well as learning and memory and numerous other behaviors [7]. Two general responses in HPA axis function occur as a result of chronic stress, namely habituation and sensitization. Habituation typically occurs following repeated exposure to the same (homotypic) mild stressor, with the magnitude of the HPA axis response (i.e. CORT secretion) diminishing with each subsequent exposure to the stressor [45,46]. On the other hand, repeated exposure to different (heterotypic) and unpredictable stressors can diminish the habituation of the HPA axis response [47-49]. Interestingly, both chronic homotypic and heterotypic unpredictable stressors cause sensitization of the HPA axis response to a novel stressor, resulting in increased ACTH and CORT secretion [45,48]. The most frequently studied brain regions that are vulnerable to chronic stress are the HPC, amygdala (AMG) and PFC [50]. In both the HPC and PFC, chronic restraint stress results in dendritic atrophy and decreased GR expression, which facilitates decreased HPA axis feedback and impaired memory [51-54,7]. In addition, chronic stress can also lead to altered hippocampal excitability, neurochemistry and neurogenesis (refs from Conrad 2010 review if needed?). On the other hand, chronic stress causes dendritic hypertrophy and increased CRH expression in the AMG as well as dendritic hypertrophy in the dorsolateral striatum (DLS), which facilitate HPA axis excitability and anxiety and habitual behavior, respectively [7,55-58]. Sex, Age and Strain Differences Sex differences in response to chronic stress exposure are less frequently examined. The above-mentioned effects are well documented in males. However, chronic stress does not appear to have the same effects in females. For example, females appear to be resilient against chronic stress induced dendritic atrophy in the HPC and spatial memory impairments [59-63]. In the PFC, females exhibit dendritic hypertrophy, whereas males demonstrate dendritic atrophy in response to repeated stress exposure [64]. In addition, chronic stress is associated with sex-specific PFC-mediated behavioral effects. Chronically stressed males show impairments in recall of fear extinction, possibly reflecting decreased behavioral flexibility [65-67]. However, chronically stressed females demonstrate impaired memory for the acquisition of fear conditioning, which is more dependent on the AMG [68-70]. Interestingly, males show dendritic hypertrophy and increased activation of the AMG and an associated increase i n the acquisition of fear conditioning following chronic stress [67]. Thus, in females, chronic stress causes more moderate morphological and behavioral outcomes that may be related to sex-specific changes in AMG function. Chronic stress also has differential effects across the lifespan. In general, earlier exposure to chronic stress (i.e. prenatal and neonatal) have protracted and irreversible effects compared to adult chronic stress. Exposing pregnant rat dams to chronic stress increases circulating CORT which crosses through the placenta and reaches the developing fetus to alter brain development and HPA axis activity [71]. The long-term effects of prenatal stress include increased basal and stress induced CORT secretion as well as learning impairments, increased anxiety- and depression-like behaviors and sensitivity to drugs of abuse [72,73]. Postnatal stress is typically induced by disrupting the maternal-pup interactions (i.e., maternal separation or daily handling of pups). The long-term effects of early postnatal stress include altered anxiety-like behavior and stress-induced HPA axis activity in adulthood though the direction of these effects are varied and highly dependent on the age of the p up, as well as the type and duration of the manipulations [72,74,75]. Chronic adolescent stress can result in enduring effects in adulthood, including decreased hippocampal volume, impaired spatial learning, and increased anxiety-like behavior adulthood [76-79]. However, there is less evidence for adolescent stress exposure to result in depressive behaviors in adulthood [80,81]. Studies of long lasting effects of adolescent stress exposure on HPA axis function are mixed, while most report no effect on basal or stress-induced CORT or ACTH secretion, some studies find increased basal and stress induced CORT secretion in adulthood [82,78,76,83,84]. Chronic stress exposure during adolescence can lead to long term behavioral and neuroendocrine effects, depending on the timing of exposure, the sex of the animal and the type of stressors used [82,84,85]. In aged animals, chronic stress has differential effects compared to young or middle-aged adult rats. For example, following 3 weeks of c hronic restraint stress in aged males and females, stress-induced sex differences were no longer evident on spatial and non-spatial memory tasks and chronic stress either facilitated or did not impair performance in aged male rats [86,87]. In addition, in aged animals sex-specific effects of chronic stress are reversed [86,87]. Furthermore, chronic stress in aged rats may potentiate stress-induced neurotoxicity, particularly in the HPC [72,88]. Strain differences are also noted in the effects of chronic stress. Interestingly, and in line with acute stress strain differences, the inbred F344 strain do not demonstrate habituation of the plasma CORT response to chronic stress with a repeated homotypic stressor, while SD and LEW rat strains do [46]. F344, but not SD and LEW, rats also exhibit adrenal gland hypertrophy after 3 sessions of restraint over 10 days [46]. F344 rats also exhibit a lack of HPA axis habituation following 14 days of restraint compared to SD rats [89]. Consistent with these findings, robust differences between SD and LEW rats were not found in either male or female rats in HPA axis response to an acute stressor after chronic exposure to unpredictable heteroptyic stressors [90]. TYPES OF STRESSORS Acute Stressors (Figure 3: Equipment/Stressors) In addition to being a threat against homeostasis, stressors can be described as any event or environment that is novel, unpredictable, poses a threat to well-being or ego, or creates a sense of loss of control (Lupien 2007). Acute stressors are stressors which occur on a single occasion with varying durations. Typically acute stressors last anywhere from 5 minutes to upwards of 6 hours, but in general for a period of time less than 24 hours. Acute stressors of longer durations are sometimes referred to as single prolonged stressors. Essentially the purpose of an acute stressor is for the experimental subject to mount a single stress response, or activation of the HPA axis. There are many different types of stressors and categorization of these stressors is attempted by many, though not all stress researchers agree. Stressors can vary in the type of perceived stress such as physical or psychological (or some combination of the two) as well as intensity and duration. Depending on the type of stressor used, differential effects on the HPA axis and SNS responses will occur. Physical stressors are stressors that are predominantly identified or perceived through the senses or involuntary (autonomic) mechanisms. Examples of physical stressors include extreme temperatures, loud noise, chemical exposure, extreme activity, metabolic or immune system disruptions, hemorrhage and pain. The most extreme physical stressors are necessarily limited to short durations due to discomfort. Many physical stressors can be administered in multiple ways or in combination with other stressors. To manipulate temperature, rodent subjects can be place in a standard cold room (~4-6 °C) or a hot room (~30-40 °C) or in cold (~18-20 °C) or hot water (~25-35 °C) as part of a forced swim stressor (forced exercise) [91-93]. Loud noises stressors are most effective at a range of ~90-110 dB [94]. Chemical stressors include exposure to ether vapors, hypoxic conditions, and injection of formalin or other noxious substances [93,95]. Stressors involving extreme activity include forc ed swim and on the opposite end of the spectrum, immobilization, wherein the subject is splayed out on a board with all its limbs and head secured to prevent movement. Metabolic disruptions can include fasting or food restriction, injections of insulin to induce hypoglycemia or lipopolysaccharide to induce an immune reaction. Hemorrhage or hypovolemia is induced by removing a percentage of blood volume with a moderate hemorrhage consisting of removal of ~20% estimated blood volume [96]. Finally, pain can be induced via numerous methods. Frequently used stressors include tail pinch with clothespins or hemostats. Another common stressor associated with pain is mild ( Psychological stressors are perceived threats against homeostasis or well-being. Important qualities of psychological stressors include loss of control, unpredictability and novelty. Identification of psychological stressors can also be experience or species dependent, in that the anticipation of the event itself can be a stressor, even in the absence of the actual event. Psychological stressors may also induce fear, anxiety or other behavioral changes. The effectiveness of psychological stressors is primarily under the control of limbic brain regions such as the HPC, AMG and PFC [7]. Several types of psychological stressors are used, including those that activate innate and species-specific behaviors and fear, inescapable/uncontrollable stressors, and social stressors. Activation of innate fear (based on a threat to safety/survival) in rodents can be accomplished with exposure to a predator (i.e. a cat or snake) or to a novel or unfamiliar environments particularly those with are op en and brightly lit (i.e. open field or elevated plus maze). Inescapable and uncontrollable stressors include inescapable foot or tail shock, forced swim and restraint. Rodent restraint is the most frequently used and well-documented stressor. It can also be combined with other physical stressors such as being placed in a rotating platform or in combination with tail pinch. Interestingly, even animal handling can be categorized as this type a stressor. Social stressors make up their own entire subcategory. Many researchers believe that social stressors are the most translationally relevant because the primary source of stress in humans comes from social interactions, expectations and even trauma. Rats are by nature social animals, but too much or too little can elicit a stress response. Two of the least effortful social stressors are isolation housing and high density housing (i.e. crowding). Interestingly males show a greater stress response to crowding while females show a greater stress response to single (i.e. isolation) housing [98]. A popular social stressor is social defeat, utilizing the resident intruder paradigm. This paradigm consists of using aggressive male rats (i.e. retired breeders or reared in isolation without handling) as the resident rat. The experimental rat (i.e. the one which will mount a stress response) is the intruder and is placed in the home cage of the resident rat. Typically the rats are allowed contac t with each other until the intruder demonstrates defeat behaviors (i.e. submissive supine posturing). In one modification of this paradigm, the intruder remains in the home cage of the resident rat but is separated, and therefore protected from physical harm, by a wire mesh enclosure [99,100]. A novel socially based stressor that is less labor intensive is to place a male rat in the dirty cage of another male rat. Thus the male rat is in an inescapable territory of another male rat, without physical contact [101]. Chronic Stress Paradigms Chronic stress is prolonged stress that typically occurs for at least 5 days, typically 1-3 weeks and sometimes up to 6 weeks or more. Many different types of chronic stress paradigms can be used, depending on the desired outcome measures. An additional variable to consider with chronic stress paradigms is the likelihood of habituation of the stress response over time, as mentioned above. Examples of chronic stress paradigms include chronic restraint, chronic mild stress, chronic unpredictable stress, chronic variable stress, chronic social stress, and chronic intermittent stress. Chronic restraint stress and chronic mild stress have historically been the most frequently used chronic stress paradigms. Interestingly, these paradigms have different phenotypic outcomes. Chronic restraint stress is frequently carried out with daily 6 hour restraint sessions for 3 weeks (Conrad XXXX). However, because chronic restraint stress is repeated exposure to a single homotypic stressor, habituation of the stress response after the first few days likely occurs as evidenced by blunted CORT and ACTH release in response to restraint following completion of the chronic restraint paradigm [102,103]. This paradigm is well characterized with regard to spatial learning and memory deficits as well as altered dendritic morphology, particularly dendritic retraction in the hippocampus [104]. Interestingly, spontaneous recovery of both altered dendritic morphology and spatial learning and memory deficits has been observed [105]. Chronic restraint stress also alters anxiety- and depressiv e-like behaviors, impairs response inhibition, facilitates fear learning and reduces motivation for food reward [106-108,53] Chronic mild stress (CMS) is typically used to induce an anhedonic (i.e. depressive-like) phenotype [109]. This paradigm typically involves exposure of the subjects to one mild stressor a day, typically for 6-8 weeks [109,110]. Stressors are administered on a set weekly schedule and include wet bedding, cage tilt, mild footshock, alterations in the light-dark cycle, food/water deprivation and cage changes [109,110]. Anhedonic effects of CMS, which can last up to 3 months, include decreased sucrose consumption, increased threshold for intracranial self-stimulation and decreased locomotor activity in the absence an anxiety-like phenotype [109]. Chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) is essentially an iteration of CMS, which lasts for a shorter period of time (~2 weeks) and presents mild to moderate stressors once a day in a more randomized order and time of day [111,112]. Depressive-like phenotypes are seen after CUS exposure in addition to anxiety-like phenotypes and cognitive deficits [1 12,91]. Chronic variable stress (CVS) is yet another more severe iteration of a repeated administration of heterotypic stressors. More recently, CVS paradigms have differentiated themselves from CMS paradig

Automatic Fire Sprinkler System Essay -- Sprinklers History Technology

The automatic fire sprinkler system was one of the earliest sprinkler systems placed into effect. The origin of the modern day automatic sprinkler system dates back to the early 1800’s. The first automatic sprinkler system was created in England in the 1806 by John Carey. It consisted of a pipe with valves held closed by counterweights attached by string. When flames burned through the string the counterweight dropped to the floor, which opened the valve that released the water and extinguished the fire. As the 1800’s progressed, the basic pipe system for sprinklers was becoming more prevalent across England. It began to pop up in textile mills all through out the country. In 1864, as sprinkler system use grew, Major Stewart Harrison of the 1st Engineer (London) Volunteers invented the first automatic sprinkler head. A few years later two gentlemen by the names of Henry Parmelee of Newhaven, Connecticut, and Frederick Grinnell of Providence, Rhode Island, added to the s prinkler head to give it a more practical application. Parmelee took the automatic sprinkler head and added to it a fusible link that broke at about 160oF. This allowed the system to control which heads broke so the whole system wouldn’t drown the whole structure in water, it would only release where there was sufficient heat to break a head. Grinnell invented a head that could withstand higher water pressures without break as well as distribute water more evenly. Each of these inventions increased the efficiency of the systems greatly. Now in today’s modern fire protection era, automatic sprinkler systems are used to protect everyday buildings around the world. It is most commonly in commercial use buildings. This includes but is not limited to schools, hospitals, ... ...dards and codes such as the NFPA or OSHA’s codes and standards. The automatic sprinkler system is the oldest and most widely utilized system in effect today. Through simple application of water onto a fire before it can grow it has saved countless lives and saved countless amounts of money in property and business. As its use grows in the commercial setting, it has also begun to grow in the residential setting. There are few areas that require automatic sprinkler systems in residential homes, but as they are proven to be safe, affordable, and effective, this will rapidly change. It will not be long before there is an automatic sprinkler system in every business as well as home. Works Cited http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_sprinkler_system http://ezproxy.sunyocc.edu:2170/codesonline/ http://www.apifiregroup.com/firesprinkler/sprinkler-history.html

Human Rights

In measuring the extent to which the European regional approach to human rights protection offers advantages over the United Nations international approach, the various mechanisms contained within both systems must be compared and analysed. An explanation of the various international treaties and the drafting of the European Convention will require some consideration in order to assess the overall effectiveness of the machinery’s established under both systems for the protection of human rights. Particular reference will be made to the right not to be subjected to ‘torture or to inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment’ who’s universal condemnation stems back to the impunity for horrific crimes against humanity committed during the First and Second World War thus prompting in 1945, the first formal recognition of the importance of protecting human rights in the international order through the United Nations Charter and the Nuremberg Charter. The United Nations Charter sets out its purposes as â€Å"promoting and encouraging respect for all human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ and although the declarations are no more than aspirational, they support principles of liberty and individual freedoms that have subsequently formed the content of specific rights treaties. Torture is received with strong universal condemnation, and although there is no absolute definition, its prohibition is emphasised in several international legal instruments such as; the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 (UDHR), the European Convention on Human Rights 1950 (ECHR), and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966 (ICCPR), each in similar language, providing that ‘no one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment’ The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel Inhuman or degrading Treatment gives a precise definition in Article 1 and requires parties to take effective measures to prevent it in any territory under its jurisdiction calling on all States to ensure that all acts of torture are included offences under their domestic criminal laws, including attempts and complicity as well as participation. Similar steps are taken within the European Convention of Human Rights which imposes an obligation on each Contracting Party to secure those rights are within their jurisdiction. However, at international level, under the statutes of criminal tribunals, torture can only be prosecuted if it falls within the category of war crimes. In addition to this, the lack of effective enforcement mechanisms within some States undermines the effectiveness of the international human rights system. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) hears cases involving disputes between nation-states and Article 30 of the Convention provides that, â€Å"any dispute between two State parties concerning its interpretation or application which has not been possible to settle through negotiation or arbitration may be submitted to ICJ by one of the States. † A failure of this allows for a claim to be submitted to the ICJ requesting that the Court apply measures requiring the Respondent to take all steps within its power to ensure the rules of international law will be correctly applied. † The problem then lies in the fact that in order for the International Court of Justice to hear a case, the State parties to the dispute must accept its jurisdiction. This is borne from the fact that International lawyers will agree that an international agreement is not legally binding unless the parties intend it to be and is therefore more of an understanding or agreement between the States. This is considered a problem with enforcement at international level as rights contained in the Conventions need to be balanced with the States sovereignty. By contrast, where the United Kingdom and other countries have incorporated the Human Rights Act 1998 within its judicial system, a natural consequence of this is that to an extent, they diminish and undermine the position of Parliament as an exclusive law giver for the UK providing that all domestic law is compatible with the rights contained within the Human Rights Act. Another fundament difference at regional level is where the Convention establishes its own machinery for the enforcement of these rights. Applications made based on a violation of Article 3 can be bought either by a member state on behalf of an individual victim by another High Contracting Party, or by a member state bringing an application against another state and allows for a more effective and immediate remedy at the domestic level as opposed to using the international machinery at Strasbourg. The latter is highlighted in Ireland v United Kingdom where an application was brought by the Irish government in relation to the treatment of Irish nationals by the British authorities. The ECtHR’s general approach on finding a violation of Article 3 relied on the concept that the burden of proof was borne not by one or other of the two Governments concerned, but mainly on the evidence of the ne hundred witnesses heard in, and on the medical reports relating to each case. Based on the allegations against the UK, the Commission estimated that the ‘five techniques’ administered by the police constituted a practice of inhuman and degrading treatment. In finding this, the Commission emphasised that ill treatment must attain a minimum level of severity if it is to fall within the scope of Article 3 and asserted that it depends on all the circumstances of the case, such as the duration of the treatment, its mental effects, and in some cases the sex, age and state of health of the victim. The scope of the Convention was extended so as to imply intention within its meaning in accordance with the UN Resolution. The approach is further laid down in Askoy v Turkeywhich concerned a Turkish national who had been subjected to a form of torture known as ‘Palestine hanging’ which resulted in him losing the movement of his arms and hands. Due to the form of torture requiring the applicant to be stripped naked with his hands tied behind his back, as well as being strung up by his arms, the courts found that such an act would have required preparation and was therefore deliberately carried out. Damages, were awarded on behalf of the Turkish state. The methods adopted under each case in their application under the law has imposed upon its members the Courts’ power to make judicial decisions that are enforceable on the offending State. Much of its success can be placed on the basis that each Contracting State is, in an economical sense, more equipped and politically empowered with the resources to adhere to the principles laid down within the Convention. This was the situation in 2009 where Belgium instituted proceedings before the International Court of Justice against Senegal on the grounds that a dispute existed regarding Senegal’s compliance with its obligation to prosecute a suspect for acts of torture under the Convention. The main reason for non compliance rested on financial difficulties which prevented Senegal from organising a trial more important, on the grounds that â€Å"crimes against humanity did not form part of Senegalese criminal law. Another advantage the European regional approach to human rights protection has over international law is its rights contained in Part I of the Convention. These rights identify a number of civil and political rights requiring protection from arbitrary and despotic governments amongst other important rights, such as the right to life. In this context, the individual holds a clearly defined right against the State in that the violation of that right can be tested in a court of law. So it is questionable whether international law is equipped to deal with individual rights of an economic and cultural nature, and in particular, where third generation rights are concerned. This is illustrate in the ICCPR Article 2(1) which states that â€Å"Each Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure that all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognised in the Covenant, without distinction of any kind† However, Article 2(1) of the ICESCR states that â€Å"Every State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to take steps to the maximum of its available resources, with a view of achieving progressively the full realisation of the rights recognised in the present Covenant by all appropriate means†¦ † So although the international approach provides a mechanism by which all States can agree universal standards of human rights, there exists in some States, a hierarchy of rights that are considered perhaps, less important than others, where importance on a particular right is based on social, cultural and political factors. In further support of his view, it is suffice to say that the rig ht to freedom of religion and belief is accompanied by constraints of Article 5 in that such violations can lead to such things as imprisonment, torture and restrictions on freedom of belief and association. An important example is the People’s Republic of China’s ‘one-child’ policy and forced abortions which has been seen as restrictions on not only freedom of religion and belief, but also the torture of detainees in Chinese detention centres and prisons. Although the policy was designed as a temporary measure, it portrays a clear violation of human rights derived out of political necessity to limit communist China's population growth. In the promotion and protection of human rights, the Committee against Torture (CAT) considers periodic reports from High Contracting States every four years and deals with both inter-state complaints and individual complaints. Alongside this, the 2006 Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (OPCAT) provides for the establishment of â€Å"a system of regular visits undertaken by independent international and national bodies to places where people are deprived of their liberty, in order to prevent torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment,† to be overseen by a Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. In addition, the Human Rights Council requires its members to go through a periodic review of their own human rights. This allows individual or group complaints to be examined for evidence of a pattern of human rights by the Sub-Commission Council on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities which are then referred to the Working Group on Situations. In accordance with General Assembly Resolution 60/251, Rapporteurs can undertake visits with the consent of the State concerned and report back to the Human Rights Council. In a recent UN Special Rapporteur on Torture, the Rapporteur’s findings highlighted the gap between China’s obligations under five of the international human rights treaties and the reality on the ground. In particular, Dr Nowak pointed out the â€Å"incentives for the police and security officials to obtain confessions through torture and the lack of independent, far and accessible courts and prosecutors, as well as ambiguity of the domestic law regarding political crimes. † The Rapporteur found that in all cases it observed, each victim had been convicted of a political crime, possibly on the basis of information extracted by torture. On these facts, the Special Rapporteur appealed to the Government to release its victims, and added in their conclusions that considering the gravity of such findings, â€Å"the international community must not waste further time and act immediately to pressure China to end all use of torture and bring justice to those responsible. † The report included a set of 23 recommendations for China to act upon, as matter of urgency, in-order to abolish the use of torture. These included setting up mechanisms of investigation and prosecution of perpetrators of torture; prevention through safeguards in the criminal law system; ratification of international conventions and their implementation; the abolition of political crimes from domestic law; the guaranteeing of freedom of speech, assembly, association and religion; and the abolition of forced re-education in detention. The UN Commission on Human Rights referred all reports of its mechanisms to the newly established Human Rights Council for further consideration at its First Session in June 2006. In response, the General Assembly adopted resolutions aimed primarily at the principles contained in the Charter of the United Nations and the UDHR by re-emphasising, reaffirming and re-acknowledging human rights However, despite the Rapporteur visits and attempts to expose China’s breaches, a United Nations â€Å"review† of China’s human rights record highlighted the weakness of a new procedure that was supposed to be the chief improvement in the U. N. ‘s reformed human rights system. In despite of this, China continues to in its pursuit of human rights violations as it was reported no soon after that China has a network of secret ‘black jails’ for people who dare to complain about life under the Communist regime. Findings suggested up to 10,000 citizens a year are hauled off the streets, locked up and beaten in the makeshift prisons. By contrast, the European regional system has in place a mechanism whereby a Committee, established under the European Torture Convention 1987, visits detention centres in order to ascertain whether conditions contained within the Convention are being adhered to. This in itself places pressure on its member states to conform to the standards set by the ECHR while maintaining protective measures for individuals considered at risk. In this sense, the Convention adopts a preventative approach to the issue of torture, and in doing so, highlights the fact that where States are poorly monitored and enforced, countries face little or no penalty for failure to uphold human rights standards. On the contrary, where all else has failed under international measures and a government refuses to uphold the declaration and instead treats its members of its own society in a cruel or inhuman manner, the United Nations and has the power to authorise military action against that country in violation of the Declaration. Perhaps the first experiment of UN intervention is the Korean War where in 1950 America called on the United Nations to use force to get the North Koreans out as they had ignored the Security Council’s resolution of June 25th. This later resulted in U. S military intervention. The Korean War provides sufficient evidence that when the U. N. Security Council threatens the use of force to enforce its resolutions, it can follow through. Although in reality, the Council has passed a significant number of resolutions over the years that have not been carried out which signifies reluctance by the Council to enforce a resolution in circumstances where intervention is necessary unless such enforcement carries with it a political dilemma. In support of this point is the use of force in Iraq where the UN enforced resolution 1441 through Baghdad’s failure to rid itself of its alleged weapons of mass destruction. The Iraq situation raised a similar issue for the Council regarding Korea whereby they could either approve Bush’s request to use force in Iraq based on American intelligence and on an American timetable, and risk being seen by other countries as complicit with the Bush administration, or defy the U. S. president and risk being considered irrelevant by the world's largest military power. Chesterman, a senior associate at the International Peace Academy stated in response that, â€Å"the issue of the U. N. ’s relevance comes up regularly, and every couple of years the United Nations faces a crises over its legitimacy† citing debate over its roles in the Balkans, the Gulf War and Somalia. The protection and enforcement mechanisms employed by international law suggests that it is focussed primarily on regulating state behaviour, whereas European regional law has its objectives aimed in the movement towards protecting individuals from the state. And although international law has increasingly been involved in identifying individual rights and holding individuals accountable, is still to an extent has in most cases been those who have been involved in political affairs. As mentioned earlier, states have a duty to investigate, prosecute or extradite individual perpetrators, and if they fail or are unwilling to do so, other states and international courts can step forward instead. In 1998, former Chilean President Augusto Pinochet was arrested in London following the request for extradite from Spain. The charges involved forms of torture committed during his term in office. In 2000, Hissene Habre, former president of Chad was indicted by the state prosecutor of Senegal for similar offences. That same year, a Belgian Tribunal de premiere instance issued an international arrest warrant against Abdoulaye Y. Ndombasi, the then Foreign Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This was a direct application of the principle of universal jurisdiction which allows national courts to try cases of the gravest crimes against humanity, even if these crimes are not committed in the national territory and even if they are committed by government leaders of other states. However, the International Court of Justice found that the arrest warrant against Ndombasi failed to respect the immunity from criminal jurisdiction and the inviolability which he could enjoy under international law. The 2001 extradite of former naval officer Ricardo Cavallo highlights the first case in whereby as person can be accused of crimes committed on one country, be arrested in a second, and then extradited by a third. Where Europe is concerned, the Courts tend to delve deeper into the interpretation and application of the right to freedom from torture by distinguishing the terms torture, inhuman, degrading treatment and punishment separately. This has enabled the courts the discretion to apply the wording of Article 3 more widely. In particular, where there is the risk of a future violation of this right. Peers v Greece provides another example of the extent to which the Courts have laid down the importance of such treatment that falls below torture. In this case the applicant complained that he had been detained in cramped cell conditions with no ventilation and an open toilet. Although the Court held there to be no evidence of a positive intention to humiliate or debase the applicant, the fact that the state had taken no measures to improve the conditions amounted to a lack of respect for the applicant and was therefore a violation of Article 3. What is apparent between the two systems is the objective on the one hand by the international system, to act as a potential means of conflict resolution, and although to an extent Europe provides its own mechanisms for maintaining its state affairs, the system it has in place has greater level of cooperation which allows the emphasis to be placed specifically on individual rights. At the same time, although many States have become party to the United Nations Convention against torture, there appears to be a lack of effective enforcement mechanisms in place within some States, which in turn violates the general obligations to punish crimes against international humanitarian law. And where the UN has, throughout the fifty years, in amended and reformed its treaties so as to bring those violators in breach of the declaration to justice, it has still, in many instances lacked the will or faced the veto, and as a result, murderous regimes enjoy impunity. The root of this lies perhaps, in the fact that the UN organises a legal institution by letting States decide by majority vote who does and who does not deserve to be shamed for human rights abuses, which in turn creates a political process in which political factors play a major role. Countries that are shamed tend to be both violators and politically vulnerable in multilateral settings. This is the case in particular where, although the UN and NATO is willing to go into Yugoslavia and launch air strikes in order to prevent violations of human rights, there are continuous reports of violations in China and by the Chinese upon its people. To conclude, it could be argued that that the UN is less likely to enforce human rights in countries that are permanent members, and where this could be the case, international law will potentially be the most influential source of law. In support of this view, recent reports have suggested that countries like China simply sidestepped censure by garnering enough support to block attempts by the U. S. or other Western nations to scrutinize their records. Meanwhile, Cuba and others complained that the U. S. was too powerful to face thorough examination. By contrast, European law has effective measures that ensure state supremacy is spread evenly throughout the system. At the same time, both international law and European law can be deemed as fundamentally Western as most international law is based on Western notions. On that note alone, and in measuring the extent to which the European regional approach to human rights protection offers advantages over the United Nations international approach, the overall effectiveness of both systems, if based entirely on their Western notions, combined with both political and economical factors, present a framework which is more compliant with the international laws on human rights, in particular where cases of torture are concerned. And with that being said, one fundamental advantage that exists within the regional system is that when compared to international law, Europe does not have to deal with the majority of the more vulnerable states that fall within the realms of international law. Human Rights the question of human rights has received a great deal of attention. Today, violation of human rights is seriously taken note of by international bodies and by champions of democracy. It is in this backdrop that most countries have set up their own independent National Human Rights Commissions. Human rights are those rights which are fundamental for living and for normal human existence. They are based on the concept that every man and woman, irrespective of caste, creed, colour, race and nationality is born with certain fundamental rights such as, right to live, speech, freedom, justice, etc.These rights are, therefore, enshrined in the constitution of the countries. In order, that these basic rights are maintained and adhered to by the nations of the world, United Nations Organisation adopted a Charter of human rights soon after its formation. The Universal Declaration of Human rights which UN adopted on 10th Dec. 1948 enumerates some of these basic rights of man. These are rights to live, liberty and security of person, right to freedom of speech, judicial remedy, freedom of movement, right to take part in the governance of one’s country, etc. The second types of rights are economic and social rights.These are the right to work, right to live with dignity, right to rest and leisure, right to education, equal pay for equal work, right to equality, etc. The problem of human rights is that people and countries have a different understanding of the term and its protection. In some counties political and civil rights are not given or guaranteed to all its citizens. In some other countries, economic and social rights are not enforced, Therefore, the basic idea behind stressing human rights is that all governments should try to maintain these fundamental rights and see that all types of discrimination in this respect are rooted out.Nevertheless, many types of discrimination and violation of human rights are seen in different parts of the world. It is true th at racial discrimination known as ‘Apartheid’ as existed in South Africa formerly no longer exists in the world. Yet today, people are forced to flee their land of birth and forced to live in refugee camps under miserable conditions. Today minorities in many parts of the world have no political rights. The story of Ms. Suu Kyi Myanmar is a shining example in this respect. Cruelty to prisoners of war, unjust treatment of prisoners in jail, economic discrimination, casteism, rape, child labour, child prostitution, etc. are other forms of violation of human rights. Protection and maintenance of human rights is a fundamental duty of every government. International organisations and watchdogs such as, UNO, International Human Rights Commission, etc. , can play a vital role in ensuring the implementation of these basic rights. Countries, particularly the democratic countries, must stand together in this respect and take necessary persuasive and even coercive actions, to see t hat these fundamental human rights are adhered to by people, organisations and countries all over the world.

Quick warm Essay

Station 1:  Here, I will be doing a quick warm up which means I will start jogging for about 30 seconds so that my muscles can start to work slowly doing this will help me to have an easier time while doing my stretches in the next stage because if I suddenly stretch a muscle that I haven’t worked on then I will have to have my P.E. kit and my trainers on which means from now on till the end of the circuit I will have to apply the safety rules to my circuit and I also have to have all the equipment needed to complete the circuit. (2 minutes break after this>>the 2 minutes of break is not included in the real exercise time) Station 2:  This is more important then the first one because this is where I will be doing my stretches. There are many stretch types that I can do but firstly I have to start the stretching from my neck down to my legs which means I will firstly stretch my neck I can do this by doing some movements such like if you turn your head from right to left or if you face up and then face down then you will start working your muscles. Your neck should be stretched because in badminton the shuttlecock usually goes up high and you will need to make a sudden move with your neck muscles to see where it is going so that you can hit it back to the opposition. After this there is another important body part that needs to be stretched and that’s my arms. Stretching of my arms will take 20 seconds so it is 10 seconds for each arm after this I will start to stretch my legs and that will take 30 seconds so its 15 seconds for each leg. These two parts are important because these are the only parts that badminton is played with and the reason of stretching these is because if I hurt any muscles in these parts I cannot play badminton till I recover and recovery depends on how bad it is. (2 minutes break time) Station 3:  In this part of the circuit the exercise that I will do is running because if I improve my speed I will be able to act quickly and this will allow me to run around the court faster so that I can reach the shuttlecock straight away. This will also increase my stamina if I do it often. In this same section I can also stretch my arm muscles while running because my leg muscles will already be stretching when I am running because I will be working them a lot. (2 minutes break time) Station 4:  Here, I will practise with free weights for around 2 minutes and that is 1 minute for each arm. This will help my muscles to get better and stronger. If I get stronger I can hit the shuttlecock faster which means it will help me to win the game that I am playing and I can see the difference by doing another exercise after this and that exercise can be taking some shots. And if I can do it faster, then this means using free weights is a good way of warming up. Station 5:  In this one I will be standing against a wall or a friend and will be practising overhead shots so that this skill can also get better. This skill is always needed in a badminton game where you hold the racquet over your head and you watch or chase the shuttlecock as it comes down and you hit it very fast from above your head to above your opponents head. It usually goes over them and you get the points but sometimes opponents can not chase the shuttlecock that good and they just miss it and lose a point. This happened to me twice and it is also the other reason for me to practise these shots. Station 6:  Here I will be practising the most important thing in badminton. Serving. Serving is a very hard thing and can lose you a lot of points if you don’t know how to do it. For a serve you will have to keep the racquet below your waist and work your way up as you leave the shuttlecock that you will be holding in your other hand. Practising this will get you many points in the game because if you serve really good the opponents sometimes misses to hit the shuttlecock back to you. Station 7:  Here I will be taking shot from one side of the court to the hoops that are on the other side of the court. This will help me to measure the speed that I should be hitting the shuttlecock with and by doing this I will be able find out where the shuttlecock goes when I hit it from one place or another.  Station 8:  From here I will start jogging as I have finished the warming up so this means that I can also take a few shots and keep on jogging till I feel that my muscles are back to normal or as relaxed as they can be. Station 9:  This is where I will be picking up all the equipment and putting them back to its place. Here I will also tell my teacher that I have completed my circuit and that it went fine (or if there was any problems, then they should be told to the teacher). Evaluation:  In this coursework I did everything that I was asked to do and my graphs also gave me good and accurate results which have proved my circuit right. There could have been better things in this coursework but my illness made me lose 3 double PE lessons where it was talked about the coursework and the lack of time we had really made it poor. Even though the coursework was a disaster I made a very good effort in putting everything together. I am hoping that this will be a good essay.